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More and more Jews self-identify by ethnicity. What's the difference?
Author(s): Boyd, Jonathan
Date: 2023
Topics: Censuses, Ethnicity, Jewish Identity, Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: The UK Census identifies Jews by religion, ethnicity – or both. How does it affect the total count of Jews in the country?
Assessment of the 2021 Census data on Haredi (Strictly Orthodox) Jewish children in England: Technical paper
Author(s): Graham, David
Date: 2023
Topics: Demography, Haredi / Strictly Orthodox Jews, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Methodology, Statistics, Censuses, Fertility
Abstract: The UK Census takes place every ten years, and since 2001, it has included a question on religion. Census data are of particular value to community leaders and planners because they can provide a remarkably detailed and accurate view of the nation’s Jewish population and allow us both to monitor change over time and predict future trends.

With that in mind, this technical paper uncovers a clear discrepancy between the 2021 Census of England and Wales data and two other key sources: Haredi birth announcements obtained from Jewish community records and school census data published by the Department for Education (DfE), suggesting Haredi children were undercounted in the Census by as much as 35%.

Some of the key findings in the study:

The two independent data sources (DfE schools census and Haredi births) closely align with each other but differ substantially from the 2021 Census data;
The magnitude of the undercount decreases as the children’s age increases;
The lowest level of undercount was among haredi boys aged 5-10, where the 2021 Census captured 73% of the expected total based on DfE data;
The highest level of undercount was for children aged 0-5, where the Census captured 65% of the total expected based on haredi community announcements;
The undercount was greatest in Salford (~66%) and Hackney (~73%) and lowest in Gateshead (~85%).
Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales
Author(s): Graham, David; Boyd, Jonathan
Date: 2022
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: In this report:

The UK Census takes place every ten years, and since 2001, it has included a question on religion. Census data are of particular value to community leaders and planners because they can provide a remarkably detailed and accurate view of the nation’s Jewish population and allow us both to monitor change over time and predict future trends.

This report, published on the day the first data on religion from the 2021 Census of England and Wales were released by the Office for National Statistics (ONS), contains the initial results about the geography of the British Jewish population.

Some of the key findings in this report:

The total number of people self-identifying as Jews in England and Wales in 2021 was 271,327. This compares with 265,073 in 2011 and 259,927 in 2001, the first occasion the religion question was asked;
Jews comprise 0.46% of the population of England and Wales. This compares with 0.47% in 2011 and 0.50% in 2001;
Greater London accounts for 53.6% of the total Jewish population of England and Wales, with 145,466 Jews living in the capital. This excludes areas contiguous to London such as South Hertfordshire and Essex;
Several parts of Britain have seen their Jewish populations decline since 2001, notably: Redbridge (-57%), Harrow (-44%) and Brent (-42%);
While still the largest religious group, in 2021, the Christian population fell below 50% of the total for the first time and is now comprises 46%.
Merseyside Jewish Community Demographics: Population Projection Technical Report
Author(s): Sapiro, Philip
Date: 2022
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Strategic Planning
Coronavirus (COVID-19) related deaths by religious group, England and Wales, 2 March to 15 May 2020’: Considering the implications of the Office for National Statistics report for the Jewish community and population
Author(s): Boyd, Jonathan; Lessof, Carli; Staetsky, Daniel L.
Date: 2020
Topics: Censuses, Health, Main Topic: Other, Demography, Coronavirus/Covid
Abstract: A June 2020 report by the UK's Office for National Statistics provided the first serious academic analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on religious minorities in England and Wales. In this short paper, the JPR research team considers the findings and their implications for the Jewish population.
Jews in Austria: A Demographic and Social Portrait
Author(s): Staetsky, L. Daniel; DellaPergola, Sergio
Date: 2020
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Israeli Expatriates, Orthodox Judaism, Haredi / Strictly Orthodox Jews, Surveys
Abstract: Written by the world’s leading Jewish demographer, Professor Sergio DellaPergola, and Dr Daniel Staetsky, Director of JPR’s European Jewish Demography Unit, this report shines a light on the demography of Jewish in Austria today, and presents in-depth analysis of fertility rates, age distribution data, patterns of Jewish identity, migration and intermarriage rates to predict Austrian Jewry’s future. It demonstrates, through careful and methodical analysis, that the population is projected to grow.

Whilst the Austrian Jewish population is small, its projected growth constitutes an important finding in European Jewish demography. The Jewish population of Europe has declined dramatically over the past century and a half, particularly as a result of mass migration and the Holocaust. Yet today, in several European countries, demographers are beginning to see signs of growth, driven particularly by high birth rates in the strictly Orthodox population. This study provides an important example of this phenomenon.

The report is a publication of JPR’s European Jewish Demography Unit, an initiative established in 2019 to produce new data to support Jewish community planning across Europe. Funded by the Rothschild Foundation Hanadiv Europe, the Unit is working to produce country-specific reports annually, and this study about Austria is the first of these.

The report draws on three major sources of data: the 2001 Austrian Census, comprehensive records of the Austrian Jewish community and a survey carried out by a JPR/Ipsos consortium in 2018 for the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA).

Key findings include:

Today the core Jewish population of Austria is estimated to be just above 10,000. The ‘core Jewish population’ consists of people who would explicitly identify themselves as Jews. This is the highest number of Jews observed in Austria since the 1960.
According to the Israeli Law of Return – which uses a broader definition to determine who is entitled to migrate to Israel and immediately apply for Israeli citizenship – the eligible Jewish population in Austria is currently about 20,000.
The core Jewish population constitutes 0.1% of the total population of Austria. 64% of all Austrians are Roman Catholics, 17% are unaffiliated in religious terms, and 8% are Muslims.
The Jewish population of Austria is growing and may reach 11,000-12,000 by the mid-2030s.
About 86% of all Austrian Jews reside in Vienna. Only 19% of all Austrians live in Vienna
The average number of children that a Jewish woman in Austria is expected to have in her lifetime is 2.5; strictly Orthodox Jewish women have 6–7 children per woman, on average, while non-strictly Orthodox Jewish women typically have about 2. The average among Austrian women in general is 1.5.
Migration has been a powerful factor of growth in the Austrian Jewish population. Jews born in Israel constitute about 20% of Jews in Austria today.
About 78% of Jewish households in Austria are affiliated with the Jewish community through membership of its representative organisation. Compared to other communities around the world, this is a very high level of affiliation.
About 30% of Jews in Austria identify as ‘Orthodox’ or ‘Traditional’ and 19% as ‘strictly Orthodox.’ 15% identify as ‘Reform/Progressive’ and 19% as ‘just Jewish.’ Austrian Jewry has one of the highest proportions of strictly Orthodox Jews of all European Jewish communities.
Due to their high fertility, the strictly Orthodox represent the main engine of population growth for the Jewish community as a whole. For the same reason, their share in the Jewish population is expected to increase significantly in the medium term.
About two thirds (70%) of partnered Austrian Jews have a Jewish partner.
About 70% of all Jewish children of compulsory school age in Austria attend Jewish schools. While 100% of strictly Orthodox Jews attend Jewish schools, among the non-strictly Orthodox uptake is still significant – about 52%.
Understanding the Spatial Trajectories of Minority Groups: An Approach that Examines their Demographic, Cultural and Socio-economic Characteristics
Author(s): Sapiro, Philip
Date: 2019
Topics: Demography, Comparisons with other communities, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Jewish Neighbourhoods, Geography
Abstract: Population researchers have contributed to the debate on minority group distribution and disadvantage and social cohesion by providing objective analysis. A plethora of new distribution measurement techniques have been presented in recent years, but they have not provided sufficient explanatory power of underlying trajectories to inform ongoing political debate. Indeed, a focus on trying to summarise complex situations with readily understood measures may be misplaced. This paper takes an alternative approach and asks whether a more detailed analysis of individual and environmental characteristics is necessary if researchers are to continue to provide worthwhile input to policy development. Using England and Wales as a test bed, it looks at four small sub-populations (circa 250,000 at the turn of the century) – two based on ethnic grouping: Bangladeshi and Chinese; and two based on an under-researched area of cultural background, religion: Jews and Sikhs. Despite major differences in longevity of presence in the UK, age profile, socio-economic progress, and levels of inter-marriage, there are, at a national level, parallels in the distribution patterns and trajectories for three of the groups. However, heterogeneity between and within the groups mean that at a local level, these similarities are confounded. The paper concludes that complex interactions between natural change and migration, and between suburbanisation and a desire for group congregation, mean that explanations for the trajectory of distribution require examination of data at a detailed level, beyond the scope of index-based methods. Such analyses are necessary if researchers are to effectively contribute to future policy development.
Explaining geographic patterns of small group internal migration
Author(s): Sapiro, Philip
Date: 2017
Topics: Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Jewish Neighbourhoods, Comparisons with other communities, Censuses
Abstract: Internal migration plays a key role in shaping the demographic characteristics of areas. In this paper, data from the 2011 England and Wales census are used to assess the geographic patterns of migration for 4 small cultural groups that each constitute about 0.5% of the population—Arabs, Chinese, Jews, and Sikhs—with a White British “benchmark” group. It examines the sensitivity of the scale of intercommunity moves to distance, having controlled for other migrant characteristics, through the development of spatial interaction models. The analysis finds that, where a choice exists, Jews are more averse to making a longer move than other small groups, all of whom favour shorter moves than the White British. The paper also investigates the influence of origin location and socioeconomic characteristics on the choice of migration destination using multinomial logistic regression. It finds that the influence of student status, age, qualifications, and home tenure vary by group though a number of patterns are shared between groups. Finally, it probes the presence in these smaller groups of patterns found historically in the wider population, such as counter‐urbanisation. Overall, this paper broadens the understanding of minority group migration patterns by examining, for the first time, Arabs (identified separately only in the 2011 census) and 2 groups based on religion (Jews and Sikhs) and by revisiting, with new questions, the White British and Chinese groups using the latest census data.
Religious Intermarriage in England and Wales: Differences in Individual and Area Characteristics of Endogamous and Exogamous Couples
Author(s): Sapiro, Philip
Date: 2019
Topics: Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Censuses, Statistics, Intermarriage
Abstract: Religious intermarriage in England and Wales is an under-researched area, compared with ethnically divergent and immigrant/host intermarriage. More specifically, the aim of the study is to identify whether there are any statistically significant differences in personal or spatial characteristics between religiously endogamous and exogamous couples, and if so, to provide some explanation as to why. Use is made of the responses to the religion question in the 2001 and 2011 censuses and the Office for National Statistics (ONS) longitudinal study, so as to avoid bias inherent in trying to establish random survey samples of minor-religion members and their partners. Although the paper considers religious intermarriage generally, there is a focus on Jews as the only group which demonstrates a high level of stability of religion reporting and material levels of exogamy. Logistic regression indicates that Jewish population density, start decade of the partnership and whether the individuals are in work and live in an area with a large synagogue are statistically significant differentiators that have a material impact on levels of exogamy and endogamy. A strong link between exogamy and cohabitation (and delayed childbearing) is also established for this group. Some comparisons between Jews and religiously intermarried groups in general are also made, and the utility of the ONS longitudinal study for examination of small groups is established.
Demografska istraživanja židovske populacije u Hrvatskoj
Translated Title: Demographic research on the Jewish population in Croatia
Author(s): Švob, Melita
Date: 2005
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Censuses
Abstract: Koliko ima Židova u svijetu, gdje se nalaze, kamo idu i odakle dolaze, koliko ima starih, a koliko mladih itd. pitanja su koja stalno postavljaju ne samo stručnjaci demografi već i političari, sociolozi, ekonomisti, genetičari pa i rasisti. Poznati židovski demografi zabrinuto konstatiraju da smo sve stariji, a da mladi više ne mare za židovstvo, a svaka židovska zajednica koja drži do sebe prebrojava i istražuje svoje članstvo. Istraživanja židovske populacije su veoma težak zadatak, jer se radi o dinamičnoj kategoriji stanovništva, koja se stalno mijenja. Neki kriteriji se primjenjuju na istraživanja svih populacija (npr. omjer između nataliteta i mortaliteta), a neki su specifični samo za židovsku populaciju, kao što je to pitanje osobne ili grupne identifikacije sa židovstvom. U Izraelu pitanje « tko je Židov » ne ovisi o osobnoj identifikaciji, koja je česta u dijaspori, već o zakonskim i rabinskim rješenjima (halaha). U našoj, relativno maloj Židovskoj zajednici, godinama se prate demografske promjene, a u ovom članku prikazati ćemo, uz ranije, i prve rezultate naših novijih istraživanja. Židovska populacija u Hrvatskoj Za istraživanje židovske populacije preporučuje se kombinacija različitih izvora podataka: popisa stanovništva, podataka iz židovskih općina i rezultata posebnih istraživanja. U popisima stanovništva Hrvatske, poslije II. svjetskog rata, broj Židova ne može se smatrati potpunim, dijelom zbog metodologije popisivanja, a i zbog iskustva Židova u II. svjetskom ratu. Ni broj Židova koji su članovi židovskih općina, (koji se razlikuje od podataka popisa stanovništva), nije potpun, jer ima Židova koji nisu članovi općina, a u općine su učlanjeni i ne-Židovi, supružnici iz mješovitih brakova. Tako su u prvom poslijeratnom popisu stanovništva bivše Jugoslavije, 1948. godine, bila popisana 6.853 Židova, a u isto vrijeme bilo je 11.934 članova židovskih općina.
Britain and Australia, a World Apart, Together: An International Contextualization of Jewish Intermarriage Using Census Data
Author(s): Graham, David J.
Editor(s): DellaPergola, Sergio; Rebhun, Uzi
Date: 2018
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Censuses, Intermarriage, Jewish Identity
Abstract: Census data are far superior in population coverage to survey data and, when relevant information is available, provide a tremendous opportunity for detailed demographic research into Jewish populations. This paper presents a comparative assessment of census data on Jewish intermarriage in England and Wales contrasting this with comparative data from Australia. In doing so, it presents a statistically robust contextualisation and description of intermarriage patterns and processes being experienced by these two Jewish populations. Despite the enormity of the geographical distance separating them, multiple parallels are observed. The analysis demonstrates the versatility of census data and its potential for broadening our understanding of subtopics of intermarriage such as the role cohabitation plays in patterns of homogamy and the transmission of Jewish identity to children being raised in intermarried homes. Finally, it demonstrates that despite striking similarities, there is clear evidence that Britain and Australia are set upon divergent paths with Britain moving towards higher prevalence of marital endogamy and Australia moving towards lower prevalence.
The Jews in the Three Post-Soviet Slavic Countries: Selected Population Trends
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Editor(s): Moskovitch, Wolf; Finberg, Leonid
Date: 2008
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Education, Ageing and the Elderly, Censuses
Abstract: The data of the recent post-Soviet censuses show that the sizable educational difference among the three Slavic countries persisted after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. According to the 2002 Russian census, 61.1 percent of the Jews aged 20 and over had attained higher education; for Russian Jews this percentage was higher by 1.2 and 1.5 times than for those in Ukraine and Belarus, respectively. Among younger Jews who remained in the Russian Federation I found a decrease in educational attainments as compared with older cohorts. The highest educational attainments were of Jews who received their degrees mostly in the Soviet period. Sizable differences were also found in the levels of aging and education within the Jewries of these countries.
Demographic Trends among the Jews of the Former Soviet Union
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Date: 2003
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Aliyah, Emigration, Censuses
Abstract: This analysis has revealed the important role of the negative vital balance in Jewish demographic decline in the Russian Federation and the FSU as a whole (see Tables 5 and 6). At the same time, the birth dynamics show that the Jews and their relatives who emigrated to Israel escaped the dramatic fertility reduction which was characteristic of the FSU population as a whole and the Jews in particula
Post-Soviet Jewish Demography, 1989-2004
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Editor(s): Gitelman, Zvi; Ro'i, Yaakov
Date: 2007
Topics: Soviet Jewry, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Censuses, Migration, Aliyah
Demography: Soviet Union, the Russian Federation and other Successor States
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Date: 2009
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Jewish Women, Demography, Soviet Jewry, Censuses, Ageing and the Elderly, Emigration, Divorce, Marriage
Post-Soviet Jewish Demographic Dynamics: An Analysis of Recent Data [Revised as of February 18, 2018]
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Date: 2018
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Censuses, Ageing and the Elderly, Aliyah, Emigration
Abstract: Results of the recent censuses of the FSU countries clearly demonstrated that Jewish demographic decline has transpired rather quickly in most of them. Our analysis shows that aging reached a very advanced level among all post-Soviet Jews, with the exception of those in Azerbaijan. Especially high indicators of aging were found in Belarus and St. Petersburg. Based on the data of Russian censuses we also found that low fertility persisted among the Jewish population. Germany and the USA ceased to be a major destination for ex-Soviet Jewish emigration as immigration rules became more stringent in these countries. At the same time, a severe economic crisis led to a great increase in emigration from Russia and Ukraine to Israel in recent years, whereas return migration, as seen in Russian data, reached its lowest level.
Demographic Trends Among the Jews in the Three Post-Soviet Slavic Republics
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Date: 2005
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Censuses, Fertility
Abstract: To understand the post-Soviet Jewish population trends in the three post-Soviet Slavic Republics of the former Soviet Union (FSU) we have prepared new estimates of numerical dynamics. We shall study the aging of the Jewish population in the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Belarus based on the results of the first post-Soviet censuses. Based on the results of the 2002 Russian census and special processing of birth certificates of that year we shall analyze the changing marriage pattern of the Jews and their recent fertility decline.
The Post-Soviet Jewish Population in Russia and the World
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Date: 2004
Topics: Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Censuses, Demography, Russian Emigration
Abstract: To gain an understanding of the current Jewish population trends in the former
Soviet Union (FSU) especial attention should be given to the Russian Federation,
where most of the Jews who have remained in the FSU are now concentrated.
For such an analysis the first results of the 2002 Russian census should
be studied in detail, as well as the Jewish intercensal demographic decrease by
area/region. Recent emigration dramatically changed the places of residence of
the Jewish population that originated from the FSU. The worldwide size and
distribution of this Jewry will also be discussed.
200 Years of Scottish Jewry: A Demographic and Genealogical Profile
Author(s): Collins, Kenneth; Lamdan, Neville; Tobias, Michael
Date: 2016
Topics: Demography, Genealogy, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: The International Institute for Jewish Genealogy in Jerusalem is attempting the first-ever demographic and genealogical study of a national Jewry as a whole, from its inception to the present day. This article describes the project, its aims, methodology and preliminary results. We use specially developed data retrieval methods that enable the access of available online sources, and we demonstrate that the extensive datasets we have generated are amenable to multidisciplinary analysis and interpretation. Utilising detailed information from the Scottish Census in 1841 till the 1911 Census (the most recent available under access regulations) and vital records from the middle of the nineteenth century to date, plus newly digitised Scottish newspaper and court records, a new and clearer picture of Scottish Jewry emerges. In presenting demographic and historical results already available from the study, we challenge some conventional perceptions of Scottish Jewry and its evolution.

By way of illustration, the article presents some of the preliminary demographic and historical results of the study, which challenge conventional wisdom. Among other things, the study reveals the migrant and transitory nature of the Jewish population in the nineteenth century and documents its stabilisation and eventual decrease in the twentieth century, on the basis of birth, marriage and death rates; and its dispersal throughout the country, beyond the major concentrations in Glasgow and Edinburgh. Hopefully, this study will serve as a model for other genealogical research into defined groups, religious or otherwise, at the national level.
Beyond the strictly orthodox/mainstream divide: Applying geodemographic analysis to a small nationwide sub-population
Author(s): Sapiro, Philip
Date: 2016
Topics: Orthodox Judaism, Censuses, Demography, Jewish Neighbourhoods, Haredi / Strictly Orthodox Jews, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Geography
Abstract: The use of geodemographic analysis has a long history, arguably stretching back to Charles Booth's Descriptive Map of London's Poverty, produced in 1886 and the published classification of areas has invariably been based on all residents. The work described in this paper, however, is novel in the use of geodemographic analysis to focus on a single minority group within a national census. This paper describes the development of a methodology which allows geodemographic analysis to be applied to unevenly distributed minority sub-populations, overcoming two particular issues: finding a suitable geographic base to ensure data reliability; and developing a methodology to avoid known weaknesses in certain clustering techniques, specifically distortion caused by outlier cases and generation of sub-optimal local minimum solutions. The approach, which includes a visual element to final classification selection, has then been applied to establish the degree to which the Jewish population in an area is similar in character to, or differs from, Jews living in other areas of England and Wales, using data from the 2011 census. That group has been selected because of the maturity of its presence in Britain — study of this group may point the way for examination of other, more recently arrived, sub-populations. Previous studies have generally assumed homogeneity amongst ‘mainstream’ Jews and have not considered spatial variation, separating out only strictly orthodox enclaves. This paper demonstrates that there are indeed distinct socio-economic and demographic differences between Jewish groups in different areas, not fully attributable to the underlying mainstream social geography, whilst also identifying a strong degree of spatial clustering; it also establishes the practicality of applying geodemographic analysis to minority groups.
Enumerating Britain’s Jewish Population: Reassessing The 2001 Census In The Context Of One Hundred Years Of Indirect Estimates
Author(s): Graham, David
Date: 2011
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Main Topic: Other
Abstract: The 2001 census count of Britain’s Jewish population is placed in the context of over a century of work estimating this group’s size. It is argued that the published census figure of 267,000 was surprisingly low given the long term trend indicated by this work. Therefore, other data from both the 2001 census and appropriate communal sources are used to derive an adjusted figure of about 301,000. It is argued that this is a more accurate representation of the size of Britain’s Jewish population in 2001. The implications of this figure are that the demographic decline, charted in Britain since the 1960s, appears to have abated with the most likely underlying cause being the rapid demographic growth exhibited by Britain’s haredi (strictly Orthodox) population since the 1970s.
Židovska populacija i popisi stanovništva
Author(s): Švob, Melita
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Jewish (religious) Population in Croatia: According to the Census Data 1880-2011
Author(s): Švob, Melita
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Židovska populacija u Hrvatskoj i Zagrebu
Translated Title: The Jewish population in Croatia and Zagreb
Author(s): Švob, Melita
Date: 2010
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: Ova je knjiga rezultat dugogodišnjih istraživanja Židova u Hrvatskoj u kojima su korišteni podaci iz popisa stanovništva od 1857. do 2001. godine. Kako je riječ o dinamičnoj skupini stanovništva koja se stalno mijenja korištena je komparativna i analitičko-sintetička metoda u istraživanju. Korišteni su i podaci Židovskih općina, rezultati anketa i podaci Istraživačkog i dokumentacijskog centra u Zagrebu. Dan je i prikaz prostornog smještaja židova u Zagrebu od 1900. do 2001. kao i socioekonomska obilježja od 2001.-2005. godine.
Jews in an Inner London Borough: A Study of the Jewish Population of the London Borough of Hackney based upon the 1971 Census
Author(s): Grizzard, Nigel; Kosmin, Barry A.
Date: 1975
Topics: Censuses, Demography
Abstract: This report describes a study of the Jewish population of the London Borough of Hackney based on the 1971 Census. It was borne from the lack of an official religious or communal census, which has meant that until the present time, the Jewish demographic studies that have been undertaken in Britain were solely of a global nature. This produced results of vital statistics, as well as gross totals of Jews, but only from unofficial sources or by indirect methods. Most of these studies relied for their information on Jewish sources such as synagogue statistics, which were often inaccurate and out of date. The need for accurate statistics in order to plan amenities such as schools, youth clubs, old age homes, and other communal facilities is well known and appreciated, but no material has so far been produced that will shed any useful light on such problems. It was determined that at this stage it would be impossible to undertake our own survey of the Jewish population, either of the country or any large centre, so it was decided to concentrate our
efforts on a compact and accessible geographical area with a large number of Jews. Efforts were directed towards finding some way of using official statistics from the 1971 Census, in particular of the borough of Hackney.

The study has shown that the Jewish population of Hackney is a variegated and diverse group of people. However, most of them felt that they had some links or group identity in common, whether culturally or religiously-based, and they were certainly seen as a cohesive ethnic grouping by other Hackney residents. Many of the Adath-Orthodox are happy to remain distant from both the mainstream of Anglo-Jewish life and many facets of twentieth century urban civilization, but the poor and aged, like many other inner city dwellers, have a feeling that they are a forgotten people living in physical insecurity in a high crime area. It is hoped that this study will bring to the attention of the Jewish community and all our fellow British citizens, that there still exists, in the 1970s, a Jewish proletariat in the inner city whose needs must not be forgotten. With such knowledge we in Britain may learn from the mistakes of American society when dealing with the complex problems of poor multi-ethnic neighborhoods.
Steel City Jews: A Study of Ethnicity and Social Mobility in the Jewish Population of the City of Sheffield, South Yorkshire
Author(s): Kosmin, Barry A.; Bauer, Marzy; Grizzard, Nigel
Date: 1976
Topics: Surveys, Censuses, Demography, Small Jewish Communities
Abstract: This is a report on a census of Jews living in Sheffield, United Kingdom. Sheffield was considered by the staff of the Research Unit, both in its history and present situation, to be fairly representative of many of the Anglo-Jewish Provincial communities in industrial centers within the range of 1,000-2,500 persons. The staff states that they had a general impression of the recent changes which had occurred in such communities, but thought it necessary to obtain a complete understanding and quantitative knowledge of the present situation. In order to meet this need it was felt that a community census - similar to those carried out in the U.S.A. - should be attempted. Sheffield was not the initial choice for such a census, but other communities placed so many political difficulties that it was decided to use a centre where the local leadership was cooperative and realized the value of such information. The Sheffield community was particularly concerned with the apparent decline of the community due to the emigration of young people and what appeared to be a serious decline in the birthrate. At the same time the proportion of elderly persons appeared to be increasing. The survey finds that the relatively rapid progression in socio-economic status, made by Sheffield Jews in two or three generations, is an intriguing sociological phenomenon and certainly a subject for further investigation.
Scottish Jewry in the 2001 Census
Author(s): Schmool, Marlena
Date: 2008
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: The decennial census of Scotland in 2001, like that of England and Wales, was the
twentieth taken. They constituted a landmark because, as an historical first, they
both included questions on religion, albeit voluntary questions. This voluntary status
was in itself unique, since the very essence of a census, compared to other surveys, is
that all questions are compulsory for everyone. The Scottish census was more
sophisticated than that of England and Wales in that it asked not only ‘'What religion,
religious denomination, or body do you belong to'1
but extended this to enquire into
religion of upbringing by asking ‘What religion, religious denomination, or body were
you brought up in?’.
Britain's Israeli Diaspora: A demographic portrait
Author(s): Graham, David
Date: 2015
Topics: Israeli Expatriates, Migration, Immigration, Demography, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: Israelis constitute the largest foreign-born group of Jews living in the UK, and, as such, they garner considerable interest both in Britain and in Israel. In Britain, the presence of Israeli Jews constitutes a potential boon to the Jewish community, although any increase in their numbers can also place a potential strain on existing resources. In Israel, the decision to move abroad is rarely seen as a completely neutral choice, so understanding more about who migrates and in what numbers, makes an important contribution to contemporary Israeli discourse.

This report, entitled “Britain’s Israeli Diaspora,” uses UK Census data to paint a portrait of the diverse Israeli population in Britain. Whilst it includes a fair number of stereotypical, born-and-bred, accented Israelis who are recent migrants to the UK, it also contains a considerable proportion of people who hold dual Israeli-British citizenship, have been living in Britain for many years and appear to be well-integrated into British society.

There is clear evidence to show that the Israeli population of the UK has grown over time, increasing by an estimated 350% between 1971 and 2011, and whilst it is still small, it now stands at its highest ever recorded level. Moreover, in the decade between 2001 and 2011, a greater number of Israelis moved to Britain than British Jews moved to Israel, at a ratio of three to two.

Many of the Israelis who have moved to the UK recently are in their mid-20s to mid-40s, and are highly educated, and whilst most are secular and relatively few choose to engage in Jewish communal religious life, approximately half of those with children choose to send their children to Jewish schools. At the same time, it is important to note that the Israeli population in the UK includes a sizeable proportion of strictly Orthodox Jews (about 16%), and a not insignificant proportion of non-Jews (9%).

Based on these data, it is difficult to determine the forces that may be driving Israeli migration. Whilst one might be tempted to argue that political or economic considerations are key, the most compelling evidence points to rather more prosaic factors – most notably, partnering with, or marrying, someone from Britain.
Strictly Orthodox rising: What the demography of British Jews tells us about the future of the community
Author(s): Staetsky, L. Daniel; Boyd, Jonathan
Date: 2015
Topics: Haredi / Strictly Orthodox Jews, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Demography, Censuses, Birth
Abstract: An important study using UK Census data to assess how the composition of the British Jewish population is likely to change over the coming decades.

UK Census data continues to be by far and away the most comprehensive and valuable dataset that exists on the UK Jewish population as a whole. Whilst the census does not capture the entire Jewish population, census data allow us to examine the socio-demographic characteristics of the Jewish population in greater detail than any other source. In this report, we utilise these data to explore how the numerical balance between the 'mainstream' and the strictly Orthodox (haredi) Jewish population is shifting over time, and what the age profiles and total fertility rates of both groups indicate about the future.

In particular, we highlight how the haredi population is growing at an extraordinarily fast rate, due to its rare combination of high fertility and low mortality. By contrast, the non-haredi Jewish population is declining, not least due to its below replacement level fertility. We note how these measures, combined with an analysis of population momentum over time, help us to develop a probable picture of a future in which the haredi population will become an increasingly large part of the whole.

Whilst this is a demographic certainty, the report also notes that 30% of all haredi adults are aged 15-24. Proportions at this type of level in other populations worldwide have been associated by political scientists and demographers with a range of social problems, not least due to the existence of large numbers of young people who are unemployed or on low incomes. There is no suggestion here that haredi Jews are likely to succumb to the worst of these problems – on the contrary, the community has very high levels of social cohesion and a large number of mechanisms that help to counteract these – but the possibility of increased apathy, disillusionment or abandonment of a strictly Orthodox lifestyle should not be dismissed. Indeed, examined from a demographic perspective, these types of possibilities represent the clearest and most obvious risks facing the haredi community.

In presenting a probable picture of the future of the British Jewish population as a whole, the findings in this report should be utilised for the specific purposes JPR intended: to help Jewish community leaders, operating either within the haredi or the non-haredi sectors, to develop policy to respond to the various challenges that are highlighted.
An Area Classification of the Jewish Population of England & Wales
Author(s): Vulkan, Daniel Paul
Date: 2014
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Statistics, Jewish Neighbourhoods, Residential Patterns, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: National area classifications are now carried out as a matter of course after censuses in England and Wales. This project explores the feasibility of carrying out a similar exercise, focusing on a subset of that data – specifically, in this case, those people who chose to identify as Jewish by religion. If successful, the results may be of assistance to communal leaders in planning for the future. 875 “Jewish Output Areas” (JOAs) were created, with roughly equal-sized Jewish populations. A set of 58 variables was selected, and a series of k-means cluster analyses were carried out. The adopted solution identified eight distinct clusters – Strictly Orthodox (Haredi); Haredi-Lite; Students; Older Communities; Young Cosmopolitan Professionals; Engaged Families; Disconnected; and On the Margins. The names reflect the dominant traits identified within the clusters. Improvements to the methodology have been suggested in order to produce JOAs which exhibit greater internal homogeneity
Report for Nightingale House: Data Analysis of the 2001 Census
Author(s): Graham, David
Date: 2004
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Residential Patterns, Ageing and the Elderly, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Elderly Care
Abstract: This report aims to identify the location and circumstances of potential clientele for
Nightingale House over the next 10-15 years, as well as to highlight locations where
further qualitative research would be beneficial.
Sources for the Demographic Study of the Jews in the Former Soviet Union
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Editor(s): Rebhun, Uzi
Date: 2014
Topics: Demography, Bibliography and Literature Reviews, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Censuses, Aliyah, Migration, Soviet Jewry
Abstract: The article shows that demographic study of the Jews in the Former Soviet Union has a long and well established tradition based on the very rich amount of data: i.e., vital and migration statistics, and census results. The analysis started from an overview of the Tsarist and Soviet statistical legacies. However, most of the attention is focused on findings of the last quarter century. The study examines both the role of the Soviet internal passport which, because it listed ethnicity, was the basis for Jewish statistics, and the consequences of the elimination of compulsory ethnic identification in the post-Soviet Slavic countries.
Estimates of the British Jewish Population 1984-88
Author(s): Haberman, Steven; Schmool, Marlena
Date: 1995
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Geography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: During the 20th century, estimates of the British Jewish population have been obtained by applying appropriate death-rates to communal mortality data. This death-rate method has become increasingly sophisticated with respect to the death-rates used. The exercise reported here covers more than 22 000 deaths recorded in the community over the 5-year period. These indicate a Jewish female:male death ratio about 3% higher than that of England and Wales. An estimate of 308 000 is suggested for the community, in which deaths-related data are augmented by information about births within the community.
Jewish Households in Russia according to the 1994 Microcensus
Author(s): Soroko, Evgeny
Editor(s): DellaPergola, Sergio; Even, J.
Date: 2001
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Jewish familes and Jewish households: Census insights about how we live
Author(s): Graham, David; Caputo, Maria Luisa
Date: 2015
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Ageing and the Elderly, Students, Family and Household, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: An innovative study looking at UK census data through the lens of the household – or Jewish family – shows that only a quarter of all Jewish homes are comprised of the stereotypical married couple with children, and two out of three Jewish households in Britain have no children living in them at all. It further demonstrates that an estimated 17,600 Jews aged 65 or above live alone, the majority of whom are women.

The report, entitled Jewish families and Jewish households: Census insights into how we live, is the latest in a series of reports published by JPR that draw on data from the 2011 Census to understand key aspects of contemporary Jewish life in Britain. It is the most comprehensive report on these data published so far, and reveals a number of important insights, hitherto unknown.

Amongst these, it demonstrates that a third of all Jewish households have people living within them who are either not Jewish, or whose Jewish status is unclear. On the face of it, this represents little change over the decade since 2001, but close examination of the data indicate that there has been an increase in the number of Jews living with people who say they have no religion, alongside a decrease in the number of Jews living with people who have a different religion.

The report also investigates differences in household make-up between Jews and other religious and ethnic minorities, and demonstrates that Jews are far less likely than average to cohabit or to live in single parent families – a finding which indicates that the traditional Jewish family is holding up relatively well in the face of general changes in family formation habits in Britain. On the other hand, a higher proportion of Jewish households have people aged 65 or over living alone in them than British households in general, or for that matter, the households of almost every other minority group in the UK.

In addition, household data from the census provide valuable insights into the lives of students and young adults, revealing that there are more Jewish students based in Gateshead than any other city in the UK. Nottingham and Birmingham follow quite closely behind, and both Oxford and Cambridge feature among the top seven locations for Jewish students. One in five young adults aged 25-29 still live with their parents, and the proportion in that age group living alone declined by about a third between 2001 and 2011, probably due to issues around affordability.
Understanding recent internal migration of small cultural groups in England and Wales
Author(s): Sapiro, Philip
Date: 2016
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Statistics, Migration, Comparisons with other communities, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: Taking advantage of the availability of 2011 England and Wales census microdata, and recognising the importance of internal migration in shaping the size and nature of communities, this paper seeks to identify and quantify the underlying determinants of internal migration of small cultural groups. The Jewish group is one of the longest present minority groups in Britain. Three other groups (Arab, Chinese, and Sikh), which have been present in significant numbers for a much shorter period, are also examined. Multivariate binary logistic regression has been applied to data extracted from the 2011 safeguarded microdata files, to understand whether, having controlled for the variables identified, there remain residual unexplained differences between Jewish, other smaller group, and general migration levels. The study shows that the initial wide variation in migration propensity between these cultural groups is partly explained by compositional differences between groups, but that even after controlling for individual-level socio-demographic characteristics, regional location and distance of migration, cultural differences in migration behaviour remain. Overall, the study shows that there are fewer differences between Jewish and white British migration levels than for the other three groups, for whom a small but significant ‘cultural group penalty’, inhibiting migration propensity, remains.
Contemporary Trends in Family Formation among the Jews in Russia
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Date: 2006
Topics: Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Marriage, Intermarriage, Birth, Family and Household, Censuses
Abstract:

This article examines the severe age-sex imbalance and the increasing incidence of mixed marriage on the basis of the results of the 2002 Russian census. The changing marriage pattern and fertility among the Jews are discussed as reflected in the data of this census and a special processing of the birth certificates of 2002. Contemporary trends in family formation as well as the mass emigration led to changes in the “enlarged” Jewish population, and for their assessment new estimates of its size and structure are prepared.
Yiddish in the Former Soviet Union since 1959: A Statistical-Demographic Analysis
Author(s): Tolts, Mark
Date: 2012
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Yiddish, Language, Statistics, Main Topic: Demography and Migration, Post-War Jewish History
Abstract:

This paper is based mainly on the results of the post-war Soviet censuses concerning respondents' native language and second language. The statistical data on Yiddish were studied for the former union republics of the USSR and their capitals. For Belorussia, Ukraine and the Russian Federation, the data were also studied for their different regions. In the 1994 Russian microcensus, a question on the primary language of conversation at home was asked for the first time, and the respective data concerning Yiddish in the city of Moscow and Birobidzhan ("Jewish") oblast were analyzed.

This paper was presented at the conference "Yiddish in the Contemporary World" at Oxford, 19-21 April 1998, and revised in May 2012.
2011 Census Results: Thinning and Thickening - Geographical change in the UK's Jewish Populatin 2001-2011
Author(s): Graham, David
Date: 2013
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Jewish Neighbourhoods, Geography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: The fourth report in our series on the 2011 UK Census, and the first to incorporate data from the censuses in Scotland and Northern Ireland into the analysis. It explores geographical change in the UK Jewish community, and demonstrates how the UK Jewish population is becoming increasingly concentrated in a small number of core geographical areas.

Our first report, published in December 2012, looked at the UK Jewish population at Local Authority (LA) level, and noted that whilst the size of the Jewish population of England and Wales has remained largely static since 2001, there are significant changes taking place at the local level. Our second report, published in February 2013, also focused on geography, and examined the changes that have taken place at the neighbourhood level. Our third report, published in July 2013, utilised age and sex data to outline the strikingly different demographic profiles of two distinct groups within the community - the strictly Orthodox, and everybody else.
2011 Census results (England and Wales): Initial insights into Jewish neighbourhoods
Author(s): Graham, David
Date: 2013
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Jewish Neighbourhoods, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: The second report in a series on the 2011 UK Census based on ward level data. It examines Jewish population numbers at the neighbourhood level, and gives detailed statistics on where Jewish populations are growing, and where they are in a clear state of decline.

The first report, published in December 2012, looked at the UK Jewish population at Local Authority (LA) level, and noted that whilst the size of the Jewish population of England and Wales has remained largely static since 2001, there are significant changes taking place at the local level.

This second report in the series investigates data released by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) in January 2013, which shows population size of all major religious groups down to ward level.
2011 Census results (England and Wales): Initial insights about the UK Jewish population
Author(s): Graham, David; Boyd, Jonathan; Vulkan, Daniel
Date: 2012
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: The first report in a series on the 2011 UK Census, based on data released by the Office for National Statistics. After decades of numerical decline, the Jewish population of England and Wales has stabilised, although this masks a complex picture of change at the local level.
Jews in Britain: A snapshot from the 2001 Census
Author(s): Graham, David; Schmool, Marlena; Waterman, Stanley
Date: 2007
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Intermarriage, Statistics, Ageing and the Elderly, Housing, Education, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: In May 2007 JPR launched Jews in Britain: A Snapshot from the 2001 Census, which was given extensive coverage in the national and international media and the Jewish press. It laid bare the complexity of the Jewish population and demolished several popular myths: ‘the Jewish nuclear family, the homogenous Jewish household, the Jewish housewife, the married Jewish couple or the universally successful and prosperous citizen.’

Over 120 pages long, the report covers a wide range of subjects, including the nature of Jewish partnerships, intermarriage, living standards, social inequality, ethnicity, educational standards and many other demographic issues. ‘Our understanding of the British Jewish population has been revolutionized’, concluded the authors of JPR's comprehensive analysis of the data on Jews derived from answers to the first ever voluntary question on religion in the 2001 Census. ‘The results have been truly fascinating and mould-breaking.’ A debate has now been started which, JPR hopes, will provoke an extensive and much-needed examination into the nature of the Jewish community in Britain and its future needs.
European Jewish identity at the dawn of the 21 century: A working paper
Author(s): Graham, David
Date: 2004
Topics: Jewish Identity, Ethnicity, Jewish Revival, Secularity, Holocaust, Censuses, Surveys, Demography, Methodology, Main Topic: Identity and Community
Abstract: David Graham's important study argues that contemporary Jewish identity has been heavily shaped by three key developments: the rise and fall of Communism; the Holocaust; and the increasing secularisation of European society. It notes that existing social research demonstrates a revival of Jewish life in Europe that, whilst heavily influenced by the various broader cultures in which it is located, nevertheless shows striking similarities across national boundaries.

As well as listing and referencing the major studies conducted on different European Jewish communities, it calls for a more unified approach to Jewish social research in Europe, and the collation of key sources into a centralised databank.
Back to the Future: Applying a Current Geodemographic Classification to Historic Data to Produce Trend-Based Population Projections
Author(s): Sapiro, Philip
Date: 2016
Topics: Demography, Statistics, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: A novel approach is described to developing population projections for minority groups for whom information used in traditional approaches is not directly available. Geodemographic assessment is a powerful tool for simplifying and interpreting complex patterns; but fixed classifications have rarely been used to compare and contrast population characteristics found in consecutive decennial censuses and establish trends for the future. This paper describes an innovative projection methodology, using an existing geodemographic classification and standard census outputs, that addresses and overcomes three challenges: the application of a geodemographic classification to a minority group – the Jewish residents of England and Wales – across multiple points in time; analysis of changes in that population between the 2001 and 2011 censuses, by geodemographic class; and the development of a projection based on these recent observed trends. The approach adopted specifically allows for temporal changes in the influence of population characteristics. The balance between the impact of births, deaths and migration on area / class population over time is determined and, after consideration of future fertility and mortality levels, used to develop class-by-class population projections for Anglo-Jewry and an overall projection for 2021 and 2031. The analysis indicates that there will be material differences between the demographic futures of the areas in which the various classes are found, and predicts a reversal in the numerical decline of the Jewish population that has prevailed over the last half century. As a result, the projections raise significant policy implications; additionally, the approach could be applied to other groups and other places.
Ethnic and religious questions in the 2001 UK Census
Author(s): Kosmin, Barry
Date: 1999
Topics: Censuses, Ethnicity, Religion, Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: This paper examines the national census as an important means of fostering a multicultural society and a participatory democracy. Redesigning it for this purpose can have long-term social, political and economic benefits for British society.

Encouraging minority communities to participate in the census as citizens and making it possible for them voluntarily to identify themselves in their own terms can be an important means of fostering a multicultural society. This approach can have long-term social, political and economic benefits for British society.
Jews in the 1989 USSR Census
Author(s): Heitman, Sidney
Date: 1990
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
The ethnic question on the British census: A Jewish perspective
Author(s): Schmool, Marlena
Date: 1998
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Ethnicity, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: Discusses how Jews orientate themselves as an ethnicity (or not) in the context of ethnic affiliation questions on the British census
A religious question in the British census?
Author(s): Kosmin, Barry
Date: 1998
Topics: Demography, Censuses, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: Discusses the possibility of inserting a question on religion in the British census.
Underenumeration of the Jewish population in the UK 2001 Census
Author(s): Graham, David; Waterman, Stanley
Date: 2005
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Statistics, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: The size of the UK Jewish population has always been a source of uncertainty for demographers. Following considerable discussion and testing, a voluntary question on religion was introduced into the 2001 Census, which afforded the first opportunity to provide definitive answers to the socio-demographic make-up of Jews in Britain. However, examination of the 2001 Census figures and data from several large surveys suggests that the census population of 266,740 British Jews by religion is probably a considerable undercount. Jews are increasingly defining themselves in ethnic rather than religious terms, so there is reason to question the efficacy of the data derived from the current format of the census question on religion and identity in general. With growing demands for comprehensive planning of social service needs, the necessity for accurate data is more important than ever. Although much of this can be derived from the Census, there continues to be a key role for community-wide surveys.
Estimating the Jewish undercount in the 2001 Census: a comment on Graham and Waterman (2005) ‘Underenumeration of the Jewish Population in the UK 2001 Census’
Author(s): Voas, David
Date: 2007
Topics: Censuses, Demography, Statistics, Main Topic: Demography and Migration
Abstract: Graham and Waterman (2005) argued that there was a substantial underenumeration of Jews in the UK 2001 Census of Population. Their observations are valuable but some of the specific pieces of evidence and the recommendations that they offer can be criticised. There is an alternative method of estimating the extent to which Jews were undercounted in the census; it produces results that largely support their claims